For Patients

Coronary artery disease develops when the arteries supplying blood to the heart become narrowed by cholesterol and calcium deposits (atherosclerotic plaque). This process, called atherosclerosis, progresses gradually over years. When the narrowing becomes severe, the heart does not receive enough blood and oxygen — which can lead to angina (chest pain), shortness of breath, or in serious cases, a heart attack.

Typical symptoms include chest pain or pressure (especially during exertion), shortness of breath, unexplained fatigue, and sometimes pain radiating to the arm, jaw, or back. Major risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, physical inactivity, and a family history of heart disease. Some people have no symptoms until an acute event — which is why regular screening is important.

See a cardiologist if you experience chest pain (especially with exertion), progressive shortness of breath, frequent palpitations, or if you have multiple risk factors. In case of sudden, severe chest pain with a feeling of pressure, acute shortness of breath, or fainting — call emergency services immediately, as it may be a heart attack. Early diagnosis allows timely intervention and prevents serious complications.

Aortic stenosis is a narrowing of the aortic valve — the "gate" through which the heart pumps blood to the rest of the body. Most commonly, it occurs through progressive calcification of the valve with aging. As the valve stiffens, the heart must work increasingly harder to pump blood, and over time this extra effort can lead to heart failure.

Classic symptoms include shortness of breath during exertion (climbing stairs, walking short distances), dizziness or fainting, marked fatigue, and chest pain with activity. The condition is more common after age 65 and in people with a bicuspid aortic valve (a congenital anatomical variation). Progression can be slow, but once symptoms appear, treatment becomes urgent — without intervention, prognosis deteriorates rapidly.

Severe symptomatic aortic stenosis requires valve replacement. Medication cannot stop or reverse the process but can temporarily manage symptoms. TAVI (Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation) allows replacement of the diseased valve without open-heart surgery, through a catheter inserted via the groin artery. Treatment decisions are made within a multidisciplinary Heart Team framework, considering anatomy, surgical risk, and the patient's overall condition.

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) occurs when the arteries in the legs become narrowed or blocked, reducing blood flow to the limbs. The most common cause is the same atherosclerosis that affects the heart arteries. The most severe form — critical limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI) — can put the lower limb at risk of amputation if not treated in time.

The first sign is often claudication — pain or cramping in the calf, thigh, or buttock that occurs during walking and resolves with rest. As the disease progresses, symptoms may include foot pain even at rest (especially at night), wounds on the feet or legs that heal poorly or not at all, skin color changes (pallor, cyanosis), cold feet, and loss of hair on the legs. Acute limb ischemia — sudden blockage of an artery — is a medical emergency with sudden pain, a cold and pale limb.

Timely diagnosis and treatment can prevent progression to critical ischemia and amputation. Modern endovascular techniques (angioplasty, stenting, atherectomy) allow blocked arteries to be opened without open surgery, through catheters inserted via small punctures. Managing risk factors — quitting smoking, diabetes control, lipid-lowering and antiplatelet medications, regular exercise — is equally important as the procedure itself for long-term outcomes.

The carotid arteries are the main blood vessels carrying blood to the brain — one on each side of the neck. When atherosclerotic plaque builds up in these arteries, it can cause narrowing (stenosis) or become unstable and send fragments to the brain. The result can be a stroke — a medical emergency with potentially devastating consequences.

Use the FAST rule: Face (one side drooping), Arms (one arm cannot be raised), Speech (slurred or difficult), Time (call emergency services immediately). Other signs include sudden loss of vision in one eye, severe dizziness with balance problems, and sudden intense headache without apparent cause. A transient ischemic attack (TIA) has the same symptoms but resolves within minutes or hours — it is a major warning sign requiring urgent evaluation.

Prevention includes managing risk factors (hypertension, atrial fibrillation, diabetes, cholesterol, smoking), taking antiplatelet or anticoagulant medication as prescribed, and carotid ultrasound screening for at-risk individuals. When carotid stenosis is significant, percutaneous carotid stenting can reduce stroke risk by opening the artery and stabilizing the plaque — the decision to intervene is individualized based on symptoms, stenosis severity, and plaque morphology.

The aorta is the largest artery in the body — it carries blood from the heart to all organs. An aortic aneurysm occurs when the aortic wall weakens and dilates abnormally, forming a "balloon" that can grow over time. If not detected and monitored, the aneurysm may continue to grow and, in the most serious cases, can rupture — a life-threatening situation. Aortic dissection — tearing of the aortic wall — is also a medical emergency.

Most of the time, aortic aneurysms are "silent" — they produce no symptoms until they become large or complicated. This is why many are discovered incidentally during ultrasound or CT scans performed for other reasons. When symptoms do appear, they may include persistent abdominal or lower back pain, a sensation of pulsation in the abdomen, or chest pain between the shoulder blades (thoracic aneurysm). Sudden, severe pain in the abdomen or back may signal rupture or dissection — call emergency services immediately.

Small aneurysms are regularly monitored with ultrasound or CT — many never require intervention. When the aneurysm exceeds a certain diameter or grows rapidly, endovascular treatment (EVAR / TEVAR) allows repair without open surgery: a covered stent graft is inserted through a catheter from the groin and placed inside the aorta, excluding the aneurysm from circulation. Blood pressure control and smoking cessation are essential to slow disease progression.